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The Nightmare: How Fuseli Painted a Bad Dream
In 1781, Swiss painter Henry Fuseli created The Nightmare, a canvas depicting a sleeping woman draped over a bed as a demonic creature squats upon her torso. The work combines Northern folklore, Renaissance medical theories, and personal grief to give visual form to human terror. Visualising the Unconscious Mind Henry Fuseli painted a bad dream by uniting three distinct levels of reality within a single picture plane. A young woman slumps across a bed, her head and arms dangling toward the floor in total surrender to sleep. On her torso sits an incubus, a squatting demon depicted with dark, heavy features. Behind a red curtain in the background, a pale spectral horse with glowing, wide eyes forces its head into the bedroom. This composition allows the viewer to examine the sleeping figure, the external demon causing her torment, and the bizarre dream vision simultaneously. Fuseli used stark lighting to draw attention to the white nightgown and pale skin of the woman. This bright central element contrasts directly with the shadowy environment and the dark figures invading her space. The woman's open posture suggests vulnerability, while her facial expression indicates subconscious distress. By arranging these elements together, Fuseli captured the psychological experience of severe sleep paralysis. The heavy posture of the incubus visualises the suffocating chest weight that sleeping victims often report during bad dreams. Rather than presenting a clear moral narrative, Fuseli focused entirely on the internal mood of dread, making the painting an early visual study of the human subconscious. Mythological and Etymological Origins The title The Nightmare refers directly to European folklore rather than acting as a simple wordplay on the horse in the background. The English word nightmare derives from the Old English maere and the Teutonic word mara. In Northern European myth, a mara was a malevolent nocturnal spirit that visited sleeping individuals, crouching upon their chests to induce terror and physical suffocation. In classical antiquity, similar nocturnal spirits were known as an ephialtes in Greek or an incubus in Latin. These entities were thought to torment sleeping women, often with erotic overtones. During the Renaissance, the Swiss physician Paracelsus incorporated these creatures into a formal classification system of imaginary beings, positioning incubi as male spirits targeting female dreamers and succubi as female spirits targeting men. Fuseli drew directly upon these historical traditions to construct the iconographic details of his canvas. By bringing the incubus out of medieval folklore and placing it in an eighteenth-century domestic bedroom, he bridged ancient folklore and modern psychological representation. The presence of the demon gave tangible form to fears that had previously existed only in stories and medical treatises. Johann Heinrich Füssli - The Nightmare - WGA08332. Public domain; source: Wikimedia Commons. Rejection and the Hidden Portrait Beyond its reliance on folklore, The Nightmare carries strong connections to Fuseli's personal life. In 1779, while travelling through Zurich on his way to London, Fuseli fell in love with Anna Landoldt. She was the niece of his close friend, the Swiss physiognomist Johann Caspar Lavater. Fuseli proposed marriage to her, but her parents rejected his suit, and she married another man shortly after. The physical canvas of the painting reveals a direct link to this rejected proposal. On the reverse side of The Nightmare, Fuseli painted an unfinished portrait of a young woman, identified by scholars as Anna Landoldt. The proximity of her portrait to the demonic composition on the front suggests that Fuseli's personal grief and sexual frustration informed the creation of the work. Some art historians argue that the leering horse thrusting through the curtain or the demon squatting on the sleeper represents the artist's own troubled emotional state. Fuseli painted four distinct versions of The Nightmare throughout his career, indicating a persistent interest in the theme. The repetition of the subject demonstrates how deeply the imagery resonated with both the painter and his contemporary audience. Classical Rejection and Italian Mannerism Fuseli was largely self-taught as a painter, having initially trained for the ministry in Switzerland. After moving to London in 1764, he travelled to Rome in 1770 to study art firsthand, remaining in Italy for eight years. While in Rome, Fuseli became the central figure in a circle of British and Swedish artists who sought new forms of artistic expression. During his time in Italy, Fuseli rejected the Neoclassical doctrines promoted by Johann Joachim Winckelmann. Winckelmann praised the calm grandeur and idealised harmony of ancient Greek sculpture. Fuseli found this approach rigid and emotionally cold. Instead, he turned his attention to the muscular, contorted figures painted by Michelangelo on the ceiling and back wall of the Sistine Chapel. Fuseli also studied the exaggerated anatomies and unnatural proportions of Italian Mannerist masters such as Parmigianino and Rosso Fiorentino. These Mannerist influences shaped Fuseli's approach to human anatomy. He adopted elongated limbs, dramatic foreshortening, and intense lighting to heighten the emotional charge of his paintings, discarding Neoclassical balance in favour of dark theatricality. Literary Dark Fantasy and Romanticism Upon returning to London in 1779, Fuseli established himself by painting scenes from literature that emphasized horror, passion, and madness. Rather than choosing moral stories from Roman history, he selected dramatic episodes from Homer, William Shakespeare, John Milton, and Spenser. He also painted scenes from the Gaelic epics of Ossian, which enjoyed widespread popularity across Europe at the time. Fuseli's preference for dark themes influenced British art in the late eighteenth century. His paintings often depicted physical agony, demonic encounters, and psychological conflict. In works such as Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent or his depictions of Milton's Satan, Fuseli presented figures caught in violent struggles against overwhelming supernatural forces, using explosive brushwork and stark light contrasts. Fuseli eventually became a full member of the Royal Academy and served as Professor of Painting. His exploration of dark fantasy, medieval myth, and nocturnal terror marked a shift away from Enlightenment rationalism. By giving visual form to bad dreams in The Nightmare, Fuseli helped open the domain of human emotion and subconscious fantasy for the Romantic movement.
Ra and the Nightly Return of the Sun
Ra’s Eye searches the darkness of Nun and finds Shu and Tefnut, who had become lost in the primeval waters. Returning with them, the goddess is placed on Ra’s brow as the fiery uraeus, protector of divine authority and enemy of disorder. The Return of Ra’s Eye Ra sent his divine Eye into the watery darkness of Nun to search for Shu and Tefnut. The creator had produced the two deities, but they had become lost in the primeval waters. The Eye gave light as it searched. The Eye was a goddess, regarded as Ra’s daughter and protector. She could separate from him and act with a mind of her own. Her power was linked with fire and water. Her fiery glance could destroy the enemies of divine order. Her tears could create life. The Eye found Shu and Tefnut and returned with them. Ra placed the goddess on his brow, where she became the uraeus. She protected him and signified his authority. The Eye could also be identified with the sun disk and other celestial bodies. Goddesses including Hathor, Bastet, Mut, Sekhmet, Tefnut, and Wadjyt could take this role. The Eye was linked with the sun’s power and the defence of divine order. Its gaze could destroy, while its tears were connected with the creation of living beings. The uraeus later became a sign worn by pharaohs. It represented their majesty and descent from the sun god. Source note: Primary text: the ancient sources. Corpus check: Magic in Ancient Egypt *ISBN 0292765592*; Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Ra Separates Earth and Sky Ra ordered Shu to separate Geb and Nut. The earth and sky deities were joined in a close embrace. No space remained between their bodies. Nut had conceived children, but she could not give birth while she and Geb remained joined. Shu placed himself between them. He set Geb beneath his feet and raised Nut above him. His arms supported her arched body, while Geb lay stretched beneath her. Shu became the air between earth and sky. Nut’s body formed the heavens. The separation established the divisions between earth, air, and sky. Nut could give birth once she had been lifted away from Geb. Her children included Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. One version also names a fifth child, Horus the Elder. Deities called the supporters of Shu assisted him. They included the eight Heh gods, who were said to have been created from his bodily fluids. Shu was later shown as a bearded man with a feather on his head. He stood over Geb with raised arms and supported Nut. In other representations, Nut appears as a giant cow with starry markings. The separation kept earth and sky apart and allowed the world to be populated by deities, spirits, and demons. Ra Separates Earth and Sky. Original MythSource illustration created for this story; not a historical artwork. Source note: Primary text: the ancient sources. Corpus check: Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Isis and Ra’s Secret Name Isis shaped a serpent from earth mixed with Ra’s saliva. She used magic to bring it to life, then hid it beside the path Ra followed on his daily journey. Ra had grown old. His limbs trembled, and he sometimes dribbled as he travelled through the land. Isis wanted authority over gods, spirits, and human beings. She believed she could gain this power by learning Ra’s secret name. The name was bound to his existence and gave power over him to anyone who knew it. The hidden serpent bit Ra as he passed. The creature had not been made by Ra, so he could not cure the wound himself. Venom spread through his body. Ra cried out, and the gods travelling with him gathered around. He suffered heat and cold, trembling limbs, sweating, failing sight, and increasing pain. His children could do nothing for him and lamented his condition. Isis approached Ra as if she did not know what had happened. She asked whether a snake had poisoned him and offered to overcome it with spells. Ra described the bite and his suffering. Isis said he would live if he spoke his own name. Ra replied by recounting his deeds and creative acts. He named himself Khepera in the morning, Ra at noon, and Temu in the evening. Isis knew these were great names, but they were not the hidden name she sought. She told Ra this and asked him again to reveal it. The venom continued to torment Ra. He finally disclosed his secret name. Isis used her knowledge of it in her magic and healed him. By learning the name, she gained power over Ra and the authority she had sought among the gods. Source note: Primary text: the ancient sources. Corpus check: LEGENDS OF THE GODS.
William Blake's Ancient of Days: Measuring the Universe
William Blake created The Ancient of Days in 1794 as a relief etching for his illuminated book Europe, a Prophecy. The print depicts Urizen, a mythological figure representing reason, measuring the material universe with a compass out of dark space. The Vision at Lambeth William Blake executed The Ancient of Days in 1794 as a relief etching coloured by hand with watercolour. Measuring 23.3 by 16.8 centimetres, the original print resides in the British Museum in London. It functions as the frontispiece to Blake's poem Europe, a Prophecy. The composition shows an old man with white hair reaching down from a glowing yellow orb to measure the dark void below with a wide compass. This act of measuring the universe directly addresses the title's central subject. Blake recorded that he saw this figure in a vivid vision that hovered over his head at the top of a staircase while he was living in Lambeth. The motif of a divine figure measuring the cosmos connects to a specific biblical source. In the Book of Proverbs, Wisdom describes the creation of the world, noting the moment when the Lord set a compass upon the face of the deep. Compasses symbolising the act of creation had appeared in medieval manuscripts and early Bibles. Blake integrated these historical motifs while drawing visual inspiration from the muscular forms of Michelangelo. However, Blake altered these traditional artistic references to fit his own complex personal mythology. Urizen and the Four Zoas Although 'The Ancient of Days' is an Aramaic name for God, Blake did not intend to depict a benevolent biblical creator. The artist was a religious man who disagreed with established Church teachings and despised the official artistic standards of the academies. The figure in the print is Urizen, a character created by Blake to represent a bad demiurgic force. In Blake's personal mythology, Urizen is the creator of the material world. Because Blake viewed the physical world as inherently bad, he considered its creator to be an evil spirit rather than a merciful deity. Urizen forms part of Blake's concept of the four Zoas, which represent distinct agencies of human selfhood and experience. In this framework, Tharmas represents the physical body, Luvah represents human passion, Urthona represents the creative imagination, and Urizen represents cold reason. Blake believed that balance was necessary among all four agencies. When reason dominates, Urizen takes control, resulting in a state that is territorial and paranoid. In his poetry, Blake described Urizen dividing and measuring space in ninefold darkness, unseen and unknown. The print captures the nightmare character of Urizen's dominion over the physical realm. The compass reaches into the blackness like a flash of lightning on a dark and stormy night. Under Urizen's rule, the human body and its senses become restricted, emotional passions are inhibited, and the creative imagination is impoverished. Blake portrayed this act of measurement as an act of limitation that trapped humanity within material boundaries rather than a divine blessing. The Ancient of Days (Blake, Research Issues). Public domain; source: Wikimedia Commons. Relief Etching and Artistic Training Blake produced The Ancient of Days using a specialised process known as relief etching, sometimes referred to as a metal cut. He began developing illuminated books using this technique in 1788. Following the death of his younger brother Robert, Blake stated that Robert's spirit visited him in a vision to reveal a secret method for printing both poetry and design on a single metal plate. Blake frequently combined relief etching with tempera, woodcut, monotype, and watercolour, while avoiding oil paints because he felt oils lacked necessary line clarity. Blake's technical skill rested on years of formal training in London. Born in Golden Square as the son of a businessman, he attended a drawing school in Covent Garden at age ten. At fourteen, he began a seven-year apprenticeship under James Basire, an engraver for the London Society of Antiquaries. In August 1779, Blake was admitted to the Royal Academy, where he learned to draw from antique casts, live models, and corpses. However, his radical opinions regarding art frequently clashed with the tutors at the Academy. Opposing Newtonian Science Blake strongly opposed Sir Isaac Newton and the rationalist scientific philosophy of his era. He believed that the Age of Reason produced a restricted worldview that reduced human experience to mathematical calculation. By showing Urizen using giant calipers to measure off space, Blake criticised the Newtonian conception of reality. The image contrasts the infinite nature of spiritual vision against the rigid boundaries of scientific measurement. In executing his designs, Blake refused to draw directly from physical life, choosing to rely entirely on his inner eye. He consciously revolted against the accepted standards of academic representation, paying little attention to conventional rules of anatomy or perspective. Like medieval artists before him, Blake considered the spiritual significance of his inner visions to be far more important than mere technical correctness. This unconventional approach led many of his contemporaries to view his artworks with confusion or hostility. Commercial Hardship and Isolation Blake struggled financially throughout his adult life, paying his way primarily through commercial engravings for booksellers such as Joseph Johnson. In 1784, Blake opened a print shop, but the business failed within two years, forcing him back into freelance work for Johnson. Following the French Revolution in 1789, Blake's art and poetry grew increasingly radical. In 1800, the writer William Hayley invited Blake to live on his estate in Sussex. Although initially delighted by the countryside, Blake grew tired of trivial commissions from local society and returned to London in 1803. Success remained elusive after his return to London. In 1809, Blake staged a private exhibition of his paintings in his brother's hosiery shop, but the show was mocked, and one reviewer described Blake as an unfortunate lunatic. By 1810, he was impoverished and alienated from many friends and patrons. Only a few contemporaries recognised his artistic talent and purchased his relief etchings, saving him from total starvation. As Blake turned sixty, younger artists finally began to admire his work, long after he completed his illustration of Urizen measuring the universe.